Turbomolecular pump structure and working principle

Turbo molecular pumps are a type of high-vacuum pump that uses the high-speed rotation of an impeller to transfer momentum to gas molecules, creating a directional flow and generating vacuum. These pumps offer several advantages, such as fast startup, resistance to radiation, tolerance for atmospheric pressure changes, no gas storage or desorption, and minimal or no oil vapor contamination. This makes them ideal for achieving clean ultra-high vacuum conditions. They are widely used in applications like high-energy particle accelerators, controlled nuclear fusion reactors, heavy ion accelerators, and advanced semiconductor manufacturing. The concept of the turbomolecular pump was first introduced in 1958 by Germany with the Baker turbocharger design. Since then, various structures have been developed, including vertical and horizontal configurations. A typical vertical turbomolecular pump consists of a housing, rotating blades (rotor), stationary blades (stator), and a drive system. The outer edge of the rotor can reach speeds between 150 to 400 m/s, which is comparable to the thermal velocity of gas molecules. A single stage has a low compression ratio, so multiple stages—often more than a dozen—are required. The rotors and stators are alternately arranged, with their blade angles opposite to each other. A monolithic rotor with 20 blades is shown in Figure 2, with a static blade placed between each pair of rotors. The gaps between the blades are maintained at about 1 mm, allowing the rotor to rotate freely. Figure 3 illustrates the motion of a single blade. Gas molecules on both sides of the blade are scattered diffusely. On the left side (Figure 3a), molecules reflected at angle α1 return to the left, while those at β1 may pass through to the right. Similarly, on the right side (Figure 3b), molecules reflected at α2 return to the right, while some move to the left. Due to the blade's tilt, gas molecules are more likely to be moved from left to right than vice versa. As the rotor continuously rotates, this process results in a net pumping effect. In terms of performance, the compression ratio—the ratio of discharge pressure to intake pressure—varies depending on the gas type. For nitrogen or air, it can reach up to 10⁸–10⁹, while for hydrogen, it’s around 10²–10⁴. Large molecules like oil vapor can achieve even higher ratios, over 10¹⁰. The ultimate pressure of these pumps can be as low as 10⁻⁹ Pa, with a working range between 10⁻¹ and 10⁻⁸ Pa. Their pumping speed ranges from tens to thousands of liters per second. To operate effectively, they require a molecular flow regime, where the mean free path of gas molecules is much larger than the duct size. This typically requires a working pressure of 1 to 10⁻² Pa. Most turbomolecular pumps operate at speeds between 10,000 and 60,000 revolutions per minute, often driven directly by high-speed motors.

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